First-Century Beliefs in the Powers

Although Paul was commissioned to be an apostle to the Gentiles, he followed his guiding principle of “to the Jew first and also to the Greek.” If we can appreciate what the first-century Judaism believed about evil spirits, then it will help us to understand Paul’s view about the powers of darkness. Since Paul accepted the Old Testament as an authoritative informing source for his theology, it is best to begin there. Demonology is not absent from the Old Testament although the authors do not spend time reflecting on the nature of this realm. The Old Testament authors felt little need to explain what these being were. The writers and readers shared a common awareness of the distinctive traits of this realm.

Demons and False Gods

                The Jews lived in a polytheistic environment. They were exposed to hundreds of deities such as the Assyrian gods Ann and Ishtar; the Canaanite deities El, Baal, Dagan, Anat and Ashtoreth; the Egyptian deities Re, Atan, Amon, Thoth, Isis and Osiris. Later in their history they were introduced to the numerous Persian, Greek and Roman gods.

The Jews claimed to worship the one true God.

In the wilderness, when they abandoned God for idols, the bible says that they angered God with their detestable idols and that they were sacrificing to demons. (Deut 32:16-17)

The Psalmist expresses the same thought. When Israel entered Canaan and worshiped the local idols they “sacrificed their sons and their daughters to demons”. This statement is set parallel to the statement that they “sacrificed to idols of Canaan” (Ps 106:37-38). In Psalm 96:5, where the Hebrew text reads, “for all the gods of the nations are idols,” the Septuagint text (the Greek translation) reads, “for all the gods of the nations are demons.” The Septuagint reflects the Jewish conviction that pagan religions had a close affiliation with the demonic realm. This belief also became the conviction of the apostle Paul (1 Cor 10:19-21).

The Night Hag and Other Evil Spirits

                “The Old Testament also ascribes names to some evil spirits. Lilith (translated “Night Hag” by the RSV) is a demon who will inhabit Edom after it experiences God’s desolating judgment (Is 34:14).’ Although though this is the only time Lilith is mentioned in the Old Testament, she was a well-known evil spirit in Mesopotamia. She also figured prominently in later noncanonical Jewish texts, as, for example, in a Jewish targum, which records the following prayer: “May the Lord bless you in all your deeds and protect you from the demons of the night [Lilith] and from anything that frightens and from demons of evening and morning, from evil spirits and phantoms.” Lilith also makes her appearance on some of the Aramaic incantation bowls. One bowl reads, “Bound is the bewitching Lilith who haunts the house of Zakoy.” In Isaiah 34:14, the spooky and terrifying place of desolation is portrayed as being inhabited by wild animals and other demonic spirits. This passage speaks of Edom becoming a den for jackals and an enclosure for hyenas. It then goes on to say “demons” (daimonia), “phantoms” and “goat spirits,” as well as Lilith, will haunt this place.’ In a similar way the Isaianic prophecy of the desolation of Babylon predicts that it will become a haunt for “goat spirits” and other sorts of demons (Is 13:21). As in Isaiah 34:14, the Greek Old Testament uses the word daimonia (“demons”) to translate some of the Hebrew words here for wild animals. There was a strong connection between wild animals and evil spirits throughout antiquity. The “goat demon” was thought to be in the form of a shaggy he-goat.’ In the Old Testament Levitical law the goat demons also appear. Israel was prohibited from offering sacrifices to goat idols. The law states: “They must no longer offer any of their sacrifices to the goat idols to whom they prostitute themselves” (Lev 17:7a). Rehoboam violated this statute when he set up “high places” and “appointed his own priests for the high places and for the goat and calf idols he had made” (2 Chron 11:15). In both of these instances demonic involvement in pagan cults is reaffirmed.”

Witches, Mediums and Spiritists

                Occultic practices from their neighbours proved to be a great temptation to God’s people.

“we find numerous commands and admonitions throughout the Old Testament, warning Israel to stay away from every form of magical practice. The Torah specifically says, “Do not practice divination or sorcery” (Lev 19:26). In the Torah the most comprehensive list of occultic prohibitions is given: Let no one be found among you who sacrifices his son or daughter in the fire, who practices divination or sorcery, interprets omens, engages in witchcraft, or casts spells, or who is a medium or spiritist or who consults the dead. Anyone who does these things is detestable able to the LORD, and because of these detestable practices the LORD your God will drive out those nations before you. (Deut 18:10-12) 12) Throughout the Old Testament these kinds of occultic practices are often catalogued, either in a list of prohibitions or in a historical narrative where the sins of a key figure are mentioned. Manasseh, one of the kings of Judah, was guilty in the eyes of the chronicler for breaking the occult prohibitions of the Torah. He worshiped the Canaanite gods, practiced astrology or a form of astral religion (“bowed down to all the starry host and worshiped them”), “sacrificed his sons in the fire in the Valley of Ben Hinnom, practiced sorcery, divination and witchcraft, and consulted mediums and spiritists” (2 Chron 33:1-6). The chronicler concludes, “He did much evil in the eyes of the LORD provoking him to anger.” Likewise, Hoshea, the last king of the northern kingdom, led Israel away from God to pursue the worship of foreign gods and engage in occultic practices, including astrology. The text says they set up sacred stones and Asherah  poles, they worshiped idols, they imitated the nations around them, they bowed down to all the starry hosts, they worshiped Baal, they sacrificed their sons and their daughters in the fire, and they practiced divination and sorcery. The biblical writer interprets their action as selling “themselves to do evil in the eyes of the LORD, provoking him to anger.” As a result, the Lord was “very angry with Israel,” removing them from his presence (2 Kings 17:7-23). 23). In the Old Testament none of these occult practices are ever described scribed in any detail. Instead, they are usually mentioned in a list and condemned. There was a clear assumption on the part of the various Old Testament writers that the readers would know precisely what was being referred to.”

“Throughout the history of the ancient Near East, the stars were deified and thought to represent various gods and goddesses. In fact, the book of Amos actually names two Assyrian astral deities that Israel worshiped: “Sak- kuth your king and Kaiwan your star god” (Amos 5:26). Jeremiah mentions the worship of Ishtar, the “Queen of Heaven” (Jer 7:18; 44:17-19). Then, as well as in the later Greco-Roman forms of astrology, the stars were believed to control the unfolding of history. The law expressly prohibited Israel from worshiping the stars (Dent 4:19), in spite of the fact that this was the common practice of all the other nations around Israel.”

Hepatoscopy – inspection of the liver (the seat of blood therefore the centre of life)

Necromancy – conjuring of the dead (King Saul was culpable of this when he visited the witch at Endor – 1Sam28:3-25).

Divination, being closely associated with magic in all its forms, is roundly condemned (Lev19:26,31)

“Magic, witchcraft and sorcery have played a part in every society in the history of religion. The main features are always the same. Of special significance for our topic is the fact that these practices were based on a firm belief in the realm of good and evil spirits. Those who practiced magic believed the supernatural beings could be manipulated ed to bring positive benefit or harm. For the covenant people of God these practices were regarded as evil and detestable to the Lord.”

Situations Involving Evil Spirits

• During the time of the Judges, Abimelech sought to rule over a segment of the northern kingdom (Judges 9) and killed 70 brothers (except one, Jotham) to eliminate his competition. Because of his treacherous bloodshed God sent an evil spirit between Abimelech and the citizens of Shechem – vs23a
• Saul was tormented by an evil spirit. Hearing the harp relieved the torment (1Sam16:14-23). This same evil spirit twice prompted Saul to kill David (1 Sam 18:10-11; 19:9-10).
• An evil spirit inspired 400 prophets to give false advice to Ahab (1Kings22:1-40) There was a heavenly session where one evil spirit said that he would go and be a lying spirit in the mouths of all his prophets. God gave him permission to go and do that. “despite the Lord’s prophet disclosing to the king all the details of the heavenly plan as they had been revealed to him. Contrary to the advice of the Lord’s prophet, Ahab attacked the city, and in the ensuing battle he was killed. Some commentators on this text have much difficulty on deciding what to make of this “spiritual interpretation” of the events. It must be seen, however, in conjunction with the account of Satan asking Yahweh for permission to afflict Job (Job 1:6-12). All three of these scenarios not only stress God’s ultimate control over the realm of evil spirits, but also make the point that God even permits these forces to carry out their evil deeds as a means of accomplishing his own divine purposes.”

The Serpent of Old

                John gives us hope by predicting the overthrow of “the serpent of old” also known as Satan or the devil (Rev 20:2). This alludes to the Gen 3:1-15 account of Adam and Eve’s temptation in the garden by Satan. Paul also spoke of this event (2Cor11:3, 14-15) where he compared the serpent’s effective cunning with the deceitful work of Satan on the Corinthians. Although there are some scholars who hesitate to identify the serpent in Genesis 3 with Satan, this was the unanimous early Christian (and Jewish) interpretation.

The scene in the garden is the classic portrayal of Satan’s character as the tempter. This narrative does not reveal the devil as a spirit or angel, but his supernatural character comes to light for the reader when he animates a snake causing it to talk.

“The snake represented an “archetypal unclean animal” in the law of God (see Lev 11 and Deut 14).9 This passage marks the beginning of salvation history. It establishes the need for the redemption of humanity because of the Fall. It points to the devil’s activity in promoting sin and rebellion against God and consequently to the need for this evil being to be dealt a crushing blow for God’s purposes to be brought to completion (Gen 3:15). The Old Testament never explicitly addresses the origin of Satan or how or when he turned against God. It is possible that couched in the prophecies against the king of Tyre (Ezek 28) and the king of Babylon (Is 14) are insights into the original state and fall of Satan.10 This connection was certainly how early Jewish interpreters understood stood these passages. These texts, however, may also point to the heavenly angelic figures associated with those nations, as was the case with the angelic “prince of Persia” in Daniel 10:13. Satan is mentioned only at three other places in the Old Testament (Job 1-2; Zech 3:1-2; 1 Chron 21:1). In all of these passages he appears pears as a supernatural enemy of both God and humanity. In Job Satan appears as an accuser and an afflicter. He challenges the genuineness of job’s righteousness and commitment to God, claiming that job fears God because God had so richly blessed him (Job 1:6-11). God sovereignly permits Satan to afflict job. Satan then strips job of his wealth, makes him dreadfully ill, kills all of his children and turns his wife against him. Yet Job responded to these overwhelming trials with integrity and did not sin or turn from God. This passage shows what great power the Lord God permits Satan to exercise on earth and even over his people. Not only does he function as an accuser, but God also gives him the authorization to control such things as sickness, robbery and even natural disasters that cause death.”

In 1 Chronicles, as Israel’s adversary and tempter his role corresponds to the meaning of the word “devil” (diabolos), which the Greek translators chose to translate to the term “Satan”

Satan’s activity to bring accusation is seen in Zech 3:1-2 and is more in line with the extended usage of the Hebrew term satan.

“Satan is thus an accuser and a powerful adversary against God’s people. He performs his hostile functions against them by luring them into rebelling against the express will of God and by causing even physical destruction, pain and grief. In spite of Satan’s powerful malignant activity, God’s people are called to maintain their pure devotion to the Lord.”

Angelic Powers over the Nations

                The Old Testament gives yet another insight into the unseen realm of spirits and angels by speaking of supernatural beings that are closely attached to all the nations. The idea first appears in Deuteronomy 32:8-9: “When the Most High gave to the nations their inheritance, when he separated the sons of men, he fixed the bounds of the peoples according to the number of the sons of God. For the LORD’S portion is his people, Jacob his allotted heritage” (RSV). The Greek version of the Old Testament interprets “the sons of God” as angels and thus translates the key phrase “he fixed the bounds of the peoples according to the number of the angels of God.” This passage is best explained as teaching that “all the nations of the earth are given over into the control of angelic powers”

God granted Daniel a vision in which he learned about the activities of the angels set over nations of Persia, Greece and even Israel. (Dan 10:13-14, 20-21 RSV, italics mine) The many references to princes are to angelic powers. The title of authority probably indicates that these various angelic princes are leading hosts of other angelic powers into battle. The word prince in this passage is translated from the word archon in one of the Greek versions of the book of Daniel.” Archon is a word that all four of the Gospel writers and Paul later used either for Satan of for evil spirit powers.”

There appears to be a direct correspondence between the outcome of the angelic battles and the fortunes of the corresponding nations. Yet Daniel himself could wield influence over the unseen angelic powers. The angel who visited Daniel came in response to his piety and prayer. GOD DIRECTS HIS ANGELS AS A RESULT OF THE PRAYER OF HIS PEOPLE.

Increasing Jewish Interest in the Spirit Realm

                During the two centuries leading up to the time of Jesus, a sharp increase of interest in the realm of angels, spirits and demons is observable in Jewish literature.

“Going far beyond what was revealed in the Old Testament, the Jews of this period gave details of the numbers of angels, their names and their hierarchies. Where the Old Testament was silent about the rebellion of the evil angels, Jewish writings of the second temple period provided a full account. There is also much discussion on the nature of angelic influence over the destiny of nations as well as over the daily life of the individual”

“His perceived transcendence led many Jews to begin postulating the intermediary role of angels. God was still in control and would bring history to a climax with the destruction of evil, but he had entrusted the administration of the world to angels, and many had gone astray. For the Jews of this period, this belief gave perspective to the problem of their suffering.”

Other Jewish literature shows greater interest in exposing the influence of evil spirits on the daily life of the individual. The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs give a demonic root to much moral evil – people often succumb to the influence of evil spirits of deceit.

Jewish demonology had a formative influence on the development of early-Christian angelology and demonology as seen by many of the church fathers.

The Angelic Fall

                In the Jewish literature of this period one of the most prominent themes was the belief that demons came into the world as a result of unnatural sexual relations between angels and human beings. (Gen 6:1-2, 4).

“The Jewish apocalyptic book of 1 Enoch spends thirty-one chapters elaborating on this fall (1 Enoch 6-36). According to this account, after the physical beauty of women on earth erotically tantalized some 200 angels, led by a certain Semyaz, the angels made a joint decision to violate their divinely given boundaries by engaging in sexual activity with the women. While they were occupying the earth, they taught people many evil arts, including alchemy, astrology, incantations and warfare. The women, made pregnant by these supernatural beings, gave birth to freakish giants. These giants committed numerous atrocities, yet their deaths did not prove to be the end of rampant evil – demons came from them. (1 Enoch 15:8-12).”

It was believed that these evil spirits which issued from giants would continue to corrupt humanity until the end of the age when God would put an end to their hostility and judge them.

In Jewish literature this rebellion is referred to many times as responsible for the presence of demons. Meanwhile, the good angels, Raphael and Michael, have bound those angels who were guilty of this crime against women under the earth, where they will remain until the judgement (1 Enoch 10:1-14, cf. Jude 6; 1 Peter 3:19-20; 2 Peter 2:4).

It is also clear that the same Jewish literature speaks of the existence and malignant workings of evil angels prior to the Fall. There is no discussion however about how and when Satan and his angelic cohorts came on the scene. This literature refers to a major figurehead of evil called Satan, the leader of a group of angels also referred to as “Satans.” Interestingly, according to 1 Enoch, it was one of these Satanic messengers, named Gader’el, who misled Eve in the garden (1 Enoch 69:6). The Jews must have assumed some kind of pre-Adam fall to be true in order to explain the evil character and function of this Satan and his hostile messengers (see 1 Enoch 40:7: 50:3; 54:6).

Classes and Names

                Asmodaeus, Semyaza, Azazel, Mastema, Beliar, Satan, Sammael and Satanail are just a few of the names used to refer to the evil angelic powers current in Judaism by the time of Paul. Satan is considered the chief. Semyaza is identified as the chief of the angels who cohabited with women. Of the 200 angels that came with him they were divided into groups of ten with a prince over each.

Jewish literature was very concerned about classifying evil angels according to their function and naming them. They also wanted to name the good angels around God’s throne. After the New Testament era the fascination with the spirit realm did not diminish. Rabbinic literature frequently refers to evil angels and spirits in the rabbinic literature (up to 123 have been counted).

The Influence of the Powers on Individuals

                The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs purportedly record the final utterances of Jacob’s twelve sons. We get a picture of how evil spirits influence people in their daily lives. Every individual will struggle personally against evil spirits of deceit, who are ruled by the devil, or Beliar. They exploit human drives and frailties to promote their evil ends.

Sexual promiscuity, in particular, is pinpointed as one of the areas of sinful activity instigated by evil spirits. “In the Testament of Reuben, sexual sin is called “the plague of Beliar” and is inspired by a “spirit of promiscuity (porneia) that resides in the nature and the senses” (Testament of Reuben 6:3; 3:3). The Testament does not give the devil and his powers full responsibility for human lapses into sexual trysts; the involvement of the human mind and senses is given an equal role. In reflecting on Reuben’s incestuous sin with his father’s mistress, Bilhah (cf. Gen 35:22), the Testament places more emphasis on Reuben’s own lust. Nevertheless, it is also described as providing Beliar with an opportunity to cause him to stumble.”

The evil spirits of error also take advantage of the debase human tendency toward jealousy. The Testament of Simeon reflects his role in the betrayal of his brother….”I determined inwardly to destroy him, because the Prince of Error blinded my mind so that I did not consider him as a brother nor did I spare Jacob, my father.”(Testament of Simeon 2:6-7) Simeon goes on to counsel that if anyone detects the influence of such a spirit then one must flee to the Lord for refuge so that the spirit will quickly depart from him.

These examples help us to gain insight into what Jews of the first century believed to be true regarding the role of evil spirits in the affairs of daily life, especially with respect to personal morality. Some of these thoughts are also reflected by Paul in his writings. 

The Influence of the Powers on Society: Pagan Religion

                Jewish writers ascribed the rise of all non-Jewish religions to the inspiration of evil powers. In discussing the influence of the powers on the rise of civilization after the flood, the book of Jubilees, a second-century B.C. writing, refers to the beginnings of idolatry. Cruel spirits assisted them and Mastema acted forcefully to do all of this. (Jubilees 11:4-5) 1 Enoch 19:1 also refers to the spirits of angels as leading people to sacrifice to demons as unto gods… The bible affirms that sacrificing to idols is tantamount to sacrificing to demons (Deut 32:16-17). This perspective about pagan religion characterized Paul’s belief, which he in turn passed on to the Corinthian church (1 Cor 10:19-21).

“Many streams of Judaism also believed occultic practices were the work of the devil and his powers. According to 1 Enoch, the fallen angels taught people magic, incantations, alchemy and astrology (1 Enoch 7-8; see also Jubilees 11:1-8).”

The Influence of the Powers on Society: Warfare and the State

                The book of Jubilees ascribes the murderous tendency in the people to the influence of the forces of Mastema, an evil angel corresponding to Satan. Civil unrest among the nations and their hostility toward Israel was attributed to the devious work of the evil powers. In 1 Enoch 8:1 we learn that Azaz’el taught the people the art of making swords and knives, and shields, and breastplates” Jubilees 48 also attributes Egypt’s hostility toward Israel as stemming from Mastema who also used Pharoah in an attempt to kill Moses.

The demonic had a major role in the popular Jewish understanding of society. Any Jewish theory of social justice would have given prominent place to the spiritual and supernatural dimensions of life. In the eyes of the writer of Jubilees, justice and freedom for Israel would be impossible apart from addressing the power of Mastema.

The people were freed because Yahweh worked through Moses. The Qumran community anticipated the direct intervention of “the mighty hand of God” to deal an everlasting blow to “Satan and all the host of his kingdom.”

Jewish Magic

Perhaps nothing reflects Jewish popular belief in demons, spirits and the powers of evil more clearly than the widespread information illustrating Jewish involvement in magic. Many Jews throughout the Mediterranean world adopted and even further developed these occult practices of their pagan neighbours. Jewish magic gained a notoriety of its own in antiquity. The New Testament affirms this by naming two Jewish magicians (Acts 8:9; 13:6-12). Luke also writes about Jewish exorcists who had added the name of Jesus to their repertoire of magical names (Acts 19:13-20).

A twelve-volume work by Jewish scholar E. R. Goodenough on Jewish symbols of the Greco-Roman period has helped to call the scholarly world’s attention to Jewish involvement in magic. There are also a number of Jewish magical documents. The occult sciences crossed all religious boundaries and borrowed from all religions.

Solomon is prominent in Jewish magic. His wisdom from God was unsurpassed by anyone (1 Kings 3:12). Judaism understood this gift to include wisdom and expertise in dealing with the spirit realm. The eminent Jewish historian Josephus believed the tradition that Solomon learned how to expel demons so that they never come back. (Josephus Antiquities 8.2.5). A magical ring and incantations written by Solomon were used by Eleazar. The Testament of Solomon functioned as a serious Jewish work on magic and a sort of an encyclopedia of demonology. According to this Testament, Solomon used a ring given him by Michael the archangel, to find out the names and activities of evil demons and to force them to divulge how they could be thwarted. This Testament gives us insight into the belief in demons and the use of magic that flourished in the Mediterranean world and even in Judaism. This Testament uses terminology that Paul also used to refer to the powers of darkness.

Many common Jews were firm believers in astrology. The Testament of Solomon testifies to this. An astrological document was also found among the Dead Sea Scrolls.

The Jews manifest a belief in the powers of darkness throughout their history and this intensified as the birth of Jesus approached. Furthermore, the Judaism of the Roman period shows a prevalent tendency toward overlooking the Old Testament restrictions against practicing magic and astrology. These activities became a common mechanism for overcoming the fearful threat posed by the powers of darkness.

Clinton E. Arnold. Powers of Darkness: Principalities & Powers in Paul’s Letters (Kindle Locations 572-788). Kindle Edition.